The Development of Machine Translation Essay Example for Free

The Development of Machine Translation Essay Introduction What is machine translation? Simply put, machine translation is the application of computer text from one natural language into another natural language text translation. The translation climax in the history of China again and again set off, the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han to the Tang and Song dynasties, the Ming and Qing technology translation and the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement to promote the progress of history. Today, the advent of the global information age is the translation climax conditions, requirements, involved in the field of computer science, mathematics, linguistics. However, the science of translation career how? Effects? How we will develop and make progress? In this paper, a review of the development of machine translation, disadvantages, role and prospects of superficial discussion, to answer these questions. i. A history of the development of machine translation The 17th century French philosopher, mathematician Descartes and the German mathematician Leibniz put forward the idea of using the machine dictionary overcome language barriers. In 1946, the worlds first electronic computer was born, after 50 years of development, through the tortuous road success, there are setbacks, presented numerous challenges for researchers. Machine translation potential social and economic benefits, some Western countries as well as Japan and other countries have spent a lot of R D, machine translation into the boom by its start-up period of the trough, the recovery period and make showing unprecedented prosperous and developed. The following is a brief overview of the various periods of its development. That is start-up period (1947 to 1954), Trough period (1954 to 1975), Recovery period (1975 to 1989),Prosperous Period. ii. The problem of machine translation The machine translation prosperity does not mean it does not have any problems. According to statistics, machine translation with human translation, translation accuracy and readability is less than 70%, many ways, there are a large number of problems, yet computer, language experts and machine translation users to jointly overcome. Opened the translation history at a glance the criterion the eyes of the beholder, the wise see wisdom. Three Kingdoms period follow essentially, Gavin ornaments East Jindao An best of Record, not so prejudicial statements were made tour word Tang Xuan Zang, neither shall seek the truth, and shall Yu vulgar to modern Yan Fu, letter the relentless pursuit of Dayak Chinese letter, Fu Lei quite similar , environment of Qian Zhongshu Gu Zhengkun best approximation . Tytlers three principles abroad, the famous translator Nidas dynamic equivalence the the fee Road Rove equivalents, otherwise Gorlee, alleged meaning on qualitative quantity. But are all demanding translation standards. The machine is translated as a translation, of course, should pay attention to the quality of the translation. The translation quality of machine translation can understand and loyalty, it is difficult to achieve the ideal standard. These examples to illustrate (1) The erroneous translation of part of speech and meaning. These problems with the machine error on the part of speech, meaning Discrimination are inseparable. Once the parts of speech in this connection vocabulary to syntax bridge is the wrong resolution, the translation will be wrong. Therefore, it is the wrong resolution mistranslation phenomenon should arouse the attention of machine translation researchers. (2)Adverbial wrong translation Of mistranslation. Such as the num ber and type of vehi2cles be misinterpreted as such a number of types of vehicles. Comparative sentence mistranslation. The earlier a smog alert can be issued, the greater its effectiveness is as it al2low s were wrongly translated: constitutes more time this smoke alarm can be as early as issued, the greater its efficiency as it does allow and the correct translation should be: the sooner the alarm, the greater the role, because it will make the Sketch word mistranslated. Small words, such as articles, conjunctions, English is not fluent in English. Chinese On the contrary, they become redundant, this machine translation can not be a good conversion. On these issues, there have been a lot of research, but always simple description, do not be traced. I believe that the key to these problems is not a simple computer program driving hard to the issue of slavery, but the context of the language itself is not a thorough analysis, we should ponder the question is how to make the machine with minimum knowledge. How to make the long-term accumulated cultural knowledge to penetrate into the machine translation. When they make the machine and from the search context, and in a certain culture play a role in its translation, what will? Mentioned Context, we can get some inspiration from the M alinow ski and Firth, Firth linguists task should be to study the text language phenomenon and its context combination, machine translation is the translation of a natural language another natural language should be set analysis, Discrimination select processing as an integrated process, asked to do , Shindaya. Gave us think of fruitRevelation, the word of the keys on the piano, alone has no effect. Keep context together makes sense. Another factor is the cultural context. Firth social scene decided to play social role social role is limited. Therefore, the social scene is also limited. Event enables the machine translation These limited role in society, the social scene analysis processing, translation will be able to improve the understandability credibility and While this robot suspected, but this is the trend. Since the machine translation represents the high-tech should be a breakthrough in the current information age. ii. The role of machine translation. Machine translation through a saddle-type process, PaulDeposit and flourish, today turned into a tool, the reasonIt is its role in promoting. (1)Promote social progress Human leave no stone unturned to develop and complete a machine. Is translation systems, has developed a translation software, promoted by Economic development, social progress, eliminating the language in the world among people Introduction obstacles, communicate with the entire world. (2) Improve translation efficiency With the machine translation research has improved continuously, the field of translation achieved unprecedented success. In our translation work, We can make use of a variety of translation systems or software to complete the translation task, Samples can improve the speed and accuracy of the translation, translation efficiency. (3) Promote the development of other areas Machine translation to get involved in mathematics, computer science, linguistics, translation Science and other multi-discipline areas need strong development of these disciplines, substantial based on the outcome, so as to promote the development of these areas. Fourth, the outlook on the prospects for machine translation. The birth of the machine translation system, especially to people translation, who brought hope. Although machine translation the understandability and loyalty also not ideal, but if the mathematics, computer science, translation studies and language science and other researchers in the field of work together, will make the machine translation out more beautiful flowers, bear more fruit. Conclusion In the above mentioned, if the context of the language environment and cultural context for consideration in the process of programming, will be able to make the translation discourse stronger language three functions, namely the concept of function, people interpersonal function and textual function was more prominent. It is also the author most would like to suggest, hope, serve role. It should be believed that through the tireless efforts of many researchers make machine translation. Having been properly developed, thus will be able to promote vigorous translation cause development.

Lessons of the Socialist Planned Soviet Economy :: essays papers

Lessons of the Socialist Planned Soviet Economy A long time ago the chancellor of Germany, Bismarck, said the following after reading the â€Å"Communist Manifesto† by Marx and Engels, â€Å"This is very interesting. But now we have to find a country that we wouldn’t pity to do an experiment on†. Russia was to be the country that this experiment would take place in. The main part of the experiment consisted of running a Socialist planned economy which is defined as the state of economy, where all production sections are governed and owned by government institutions. Before the country could implement the planned economy it had to adapt some policies. First the country had to start industrializing, or as some economists call it the â€Å"big push† (industry-first strategy). The growth of the industrial sector was the ultimate goal. But since Russian economy was so backward it required a transitional period that was called state capitalism. In stated capitalism, through nationalization, the state would control major sectors of the economy and use this control to influence the remaining private sectors. Nationalization gave the state not only the control of the means of production, but it also insured the control over the output. Another policy that had to be adapted was the collectivization. After 1927, when the voluntary grain output fell below government target, Stalin ordered the collectivization of agriculture by forcibly establishing collective farms. Millions of peasants who resisted collectivization were arrested, and then executed or deported. Even in the post-Soviet era, the collectivization of agriculture was Soviet economy’s sore spot; it never achieved its economic goals. To hold all this together there had to be an organization big enough to balance what had now been known as the input-output economy. In 1922, Gosplan was created to exclusively and explicitly deal with planning. In the early stages Gosplan delivered the control figures and planed targets. In 1925 Gosplan assumed responsibility for drawing up Five Year Plans. The Five Year Plan called for industrialization at a maximum pace with a conception that some major construction projects had to be done. By the end of 1930s the nationalization was completed, agriculture collectivized, and the national planning mechanism established. The Soviet economic system was one of the most complex organizational arrangements, especially among the different layers of organizations.

Pygmalion VS Pretty Woman Essay Essay

Year 11 Preliminary Extension English Assessment Task – Pygmalion (George Bernard Shaw) and Pretty Woman (Garry Marshall) To what extent have contextual attitudes and values regarding gender and class been maintained or altered in the two texts you have studied? Both Pygmalion, composed by George Bernard Shaw and Pretty Woman, directed by Garry Marshall effectively critique the gender and class disparities of their time, suggesting that these discrepancies were merely social constructs. Through obscure and indirect methods such as the use of humour, irony, character development and transformations, Shaw and Marshall address the issues of gender and class inequality in a milder way, thus skilfully avoiding conflicting opinions with the audience and the general public. Although the two texts belong to different time periods and genres, they are similar in their storyline and unprovocative methods of presenting what used to be a highly controversial idea. In the play Pygmalion, Shaw uses irony to question the society’s views on gender inequality through the characterisation of Eliza, as an independent and intelligent young woman, capable of much more than was deemed appropriate for her sex. Shaw’s philosophy of equality which ridicules the social construct of gender discrepancies is expressed through Eliza’s disgust at having to marry a prosperous man, announcing that â€Å"I sold flowers. I didn’t sell myself. Now you’ve made a lady of me I’m not fit to sell anything else.† This is an example of irony which Shaw uses to target the notion of noble girls aiming to marry a rich man, rendering them dependent upon somebody else. While Eliza was able to provide for herself as a flower girl, no matter how little her income, she was better than the rich man’s wife who is reliant on her husband’s income. In the beginning of the play, Ms and Mrs Eynsford Hill ask Freddy to find a cab for them, suggesting that the man is the one who provides for and protects the woman as befitting for the gender roles of their time, whereas Eliza is different – she finds her own cab to go to Higgins’s house and also pays for her tuition with her own income. Hence it is evident that through the use of irony, Shaw subtly critiques the gender disparities of his time, and using the abilities his female protagonist, he shows his audience that allocated gender roles are simply social constructs, created and preserved by the traditions of society. Through the use of character development, Marshall takes a similar approach in Pretty Woman to critique the issues of gender inequality in comparison to Pygmalion, and though the times during which they were produced were different, both texts alluded to the fact that gender disparities were but social constructs. Alike in Pygmalion, the female gender is expected to act within certain definitions of ‘gentle and submissive’, but both Vivian and Eliza are strong and independent, and do not meet up to society’s expectations. Unlike Pygmalion however, Vivian is a real prostitute whereas Eliza is a flower girl accused of being a prostitute. Although Vivian’s profession is degrading of her gender, her being a prostitute without a pimp gives her power in her relationships, as expressed through her saying â€Å"I say  who, I say when† and her act of negotiating the price of her time with Edward. In contrast to Pygmalion’s ending, Vivian does develop a romantic relationship with Edward whilst Eliza remains independent of Higgins. This again may be degrading of Vivian and her gender as it appears to make Vivian financially dependent upon her male partner, though this notion is disproved when Vivian tells Edward that she will â€Å"rescue him right back†, teaching him life’s morals while he provides for her. This characterisation of Vivian as the ‘damsel in distress’ displays Marshall’s philosophy of the princess who is rescued from the tower, rescuing the prince â€Å"right back†, allowing the issue of gender inequality to be questioned in the film. While Pretty Woman may be much more subtle than Pygmalion, it is shown through the characterisation of Vivian that Marshall not only frowns upon gender inequality in his time, but also identifies gender disparities as a social construct, similar to Shaw in his philosophy. George Bernard Shaw also uses humour to address the social constructs on class differences and depict through the interactions between Higgins and Eliza the futility of the class structure of his time. This is illustrated through Higgins’s confidence in being able to turn Eliza whom he calls a â€Å"squashed cabbage leaf† and an â€Å"incarnate insult to the English language† into a â€Å"duchess† or â€Å"the Queen of   Sheba†. These insults are examples of the humour that is used in the play to present the issues of class disparities to the audience. Using Higgins’s pompous bet with Pickering to portray the fact that even a flower girl can be passed off as royalty, Shaw implies that given the right education, anyone can become ‘noble’ or ‘high-class’. This notion is further supported with the use of humour when Eliza attends the ball and is thought to be a â€Å"fraud† and a â€Å"Hungarian princess† thus allowing Higgins to win his bet. Shaw also promotes his beliefs through his character, Higgins when he argues that teaching the human being another way of speech is like â€Å"filling up the deepest gulf that separates class from class and soul from soul†. Hence, George Bernard Shaw’s intention of using humour and character interaction to question society’s view on class disparities becomes clear as he successfully identifies the class st ructures of his time as nothing but social constructs. In Pygmalion as well as Pretty Woman, there are clear class distinctions in the society, and through the concept of a ‘transformation’, Director Garry Marshall encourages the idea that one does not have to be born noble to be noble. For instance, the treatment that Vivian receives during both her visits to the boutique on Rodeo Drive differs greatly from one another simply because of the change in Vivian’s attire. In response to Vivian’s transformation, her friend Kit tells her that she â€Å"cleans up real nice† while Vivian replies â€Å"it’s easy to clean up when you got money†, suggesting that perhaps one’s class is based purely on appearance and with the right education and money, anyone can be ‘high-class’. The process of Vivian’s transformation is more physical rather than intellectual in contrast to Pygmalion’s Eliza who undergoes months of speech training to make her appearance in the ball, how ever, the same notion of ‘anyone can be high-class’ is supported. Near the end of Vivian’s stay with Edward, he offers to set her up in an apartment so he can continue visiting her, however she  refuses and tells him she once â€Å"would have said yes†, but the time she has spent with him led her to step out of her mindset as a prostitute as she becomes a noble lady. Through the concept of transformation, Marshall challenges the widely accepted view on class disparities and like Shaw, expresses through their work the futility of the class structure of their time. George Bernard Shaw and Director Garry Marshall shared their viewpoint on both gender and class disparities, believing them to be mere social constructs, questioning the norms of their time in their respective texts – Pygmalion and Pretty Woman. Through the use of humour, irony, character development and the concept of ‘transformation’, both composers successfully address the issues of gender and class with their characteristic subtlety. Although Pygmalion and Pretty Woman have many differences including their genre and the time period in which they were composed, they are ultimately similar in the way they critique gender and class disparities using mild and unprovocative methods which allow their philosophies to be communicated to a wider audience.

Motivation Theory and Practice Name University - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2447 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/09/17 Category Psychology Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Motivation Essay Did you like this example? RUNNING HEAD: Motivation Theory and Practice Name University Name Instructor name Course Name Date Motivation Theory and Practice Introduction Motivation is the psychological process which gives the behavior a meaning or a purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy the unsatisfied needs (Higgins, 1994) and the will to achieve (Bedeian,1993). The word motivation has a different connotation in Psychology, it refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior (Green, 1995). Thus motivation in simple terms can be defined as the desire or willingness to do something and the inner force which helps the individuals to achieve their goals and aims. Motivation is very important in business as the employer has to first of all understand as to what motivates the employees and what exactly should they do to motivate their employees so as to increase the over all productivity. Motivation has occupied a prominent place amongst researcher s due to the fact that business has to motivate not only the employees but also should succeed in motivating the customers. This is so because of the increasing competition in business and the motivated employees can provide a firm with a distinctive advantage and a cutting edge on others by being more productive, which can keep the business organization thriving and surviving. Motivation has been attempted to be studied and analyzed by two schools of thought; the scientific school of thought and the Behavioral School of thought. Scientific Model The scientific method to management tasks was devised by pioneers like Frederic Taylor, (1856-1915). Under this model; employees are regarded as an input in the process of production of goods and services. The scientific approach lays importance on the scientific selection, training and development of the employees rather than giving them an option to choose their own tasks and the methods of training so as to carry out the work in ac cordance with scientifically devised procedures. According to this model human behavior was to be analyzed scientifically, by considering individuals as parts of the machines. Taylor broke down the tasks into smallest units in order to figure out the best approach. Here each worker was assigned a single job in which he is trained like the motions of the parts of the machine. He then made a science for each element of work and restricted the behavioral alternatives of the worker in accordance with his social physical environment, task, capacity, speed, durability and cost in order to remove the human variability (Terpstra, 2005). This model of Taylor was successful as it increased production and profitability as it was based on rationality rather than the trial and error methodology in management, and this led to enhanced efficiency in work. But this approach to the treatment of human beings as machines was opposed by the managers, who called it as dehumanization of work. The other feature of this model was that observation and breaking the timings on the basis of stop-watch timing also faces a strong resistance on the ground that nobody likes his work to be so closely monitored. Taylor’s method though criticized had an impact on the work as it was a very novel efficient and more productive method of work, which totally changed the nature of the industry itself as the departments of work study, personnel, maintenance and Quality check did not exist at all before the scientific model was invented by Taylor (Buford, 2000). Though there have been many developments in this field later but the scientific model has remained the basis for all the other models which developed later, as they were only modifications and not original. Behavioral approach The Behavioral Model approaches the concept from the identification of the elements and specific influences which motivate individuals to increase their efficiency and productivity. Many people have contr ibuted to this approach of motivation and have put forth their theories on these lines. The theory of hierarchy of needs by Maslow (1943) is one such attempt in this regard. According to this theory human needs are considered in the form of hierarchy, ascending from lowest to the highest. Maslow argues that lower level needs have to be satisfied before the higher level needs, as once the needs are satisfied, they cease to be a motivator. To keep the workers in action their lower needs should be satisfied and their higher needs to be satisfied only later. Maslow has elaborated the five needs as; Physiological, security or safety, social, Esteem and self actualization needs. Physiological needs are the most basic human needs which are important for sustenance like food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep etc. Maslow argued that unless physiological needs are satisfied to a degree, no other motivating factor can work. †¢ Safety or Security needs are those needs which relate to one ’s security, protection and stability in the personal life. They are free from physical danger and emotional harm; viz, fear of unemployment, loss of property, food and shelter. †¢ Social Needs are needs for love, affection and belongingness and social acceptance. People are social beings and try to satisfy their needs for acceptance and friendship as man cannot afford to live in isolation. †¢ Esteem – is the need for reputation and esteem, which man expects after his social needs are satisfied. They are; power, prestige status and self confidence. Even internal and external esteem factors like self respect, autonomy, achievements, recognition and attention (Source) †¢ . Self actualization is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. Its the need to grow and use abilities to the fullest potential. It includes growth and self-fulfillment by achieving ones potential to accomplish something. The hierarchy is shown in the figure below: [pi c] As given in Maslow’s hierarchy triangle of needs, every need satisfied will be followed by the next on the hierarchy level which becomes important and dominant for example, when physiological needs are satisfied, people look for their safety, which becomes important now and when all the needs are satisfied motivation stops. Thus the crux of this theory is finding out the level of hierarchy in a person’s life. Maslow’s theory of needs is widely recognized and is adopted by the managers all over the world. The theory is easily understood and its intutive logic has made it implementable but the emperical evidence of the measurement of its success after its implementation in the validation of the theory is not found. Hence the quantitative impact of the theory of needs is not accurately measured. Two Factor Theory: If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do says Frederick Herzbergs (1959). This motivational theory of Herzberg is based on a two-component approach and is known as the Two Factor theory. He draws a distinction between things which prevent dissatisfaction and those that create satisfaction (Herzberg, 1959). Dissatisfaction leads to de-motivation and because the discontent environmental factors known as Hygiene factors, people are de-motivated at their work place. The hygiene factors include security, status, relationship, personal life, salary, working conditions, company policy and administration (Bedeian, 2003), which are basically essential and do not lead to motivation but their absence would certainly de-motivate the workers. The second component of the Hygiene theory involves those factors, whose absence causes no dissatisfaction but their presence motivates the workers like the work and organizational environment. These factors are termed as motivational factors by Herzberg. Factors like growth prospects, career progression and advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievem ents are the motivational factors. The theory focuses on the fact that mere removal of the dissatisfying features from a job does not make the work satisfactory but both the approaches of hygiene and motivation should exist simultaneously to make the Herzberg’s approach applicable and it is a modification of the Maslow’s theory hierarchy of needs. The Herzberg’s theory has been criticized as vague, but in the present conditions of business, where the contents and contexts of employment have become major issues, the accurate application and implementation based on the motivational ideas of the theory would give very good results. pic] Diagrammatic representation of Herzberg two-factor theory (Web 2) Vrooms Expectancy Theory is based on the perception that motivation depends on the values and beliefs of a person and it examines whether the motives of an individual will be fulfilled . i. e the belief of the employee that his efforts will increase his performance , which would enhance his rewards (Vroom, 1964). According to the theory individuals can be motivated on the basis of a positive correlation between efforts of the worker and his performance, which should lead to a reward. Consequently, the reward should be able to satisfy his needs and desire to equate his efforts. The theory therefore states that the strength of an individual’s motivation depends on their expectation of the results of heir performance, which contributes to the satisfaction of their need. Hence motivation is the result of a rational calculation (Vroom, 1964). Further the calculations depend upon people’s beliefs and the expectancy multiplied by the probability of performance leading to a reward (instrumentality), multiplied by the perceived value of the reward (Valence) (Source). Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence can be used to predict whether a particular reward will motivate an individual or not. Thus Vroom’s theory is applicable to those situations where someone does something on the expectation of a certain outcome or a result or it is the association between expected outcomes and the contribution the people can make towards the results (Bowen, 1991). Though critics have appreciated the basics of the Vroom’s theory but issues have been raised about the validity of the motivation equation as a product of expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Porter-Lawler Expectancy theory has also contributed to the concept of motivation in terms of expectancy and it is on the same lines as Vroom’s theory and suggests that motivational level is based on the value attributed to the reward by an individual. Performance in a task is mainly determined by the efforts made and the ability of an individual and his perception of the job. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward (Bowen 1991) Porter and Lawler point out that perceived inequality in this model plays a pivotal role in job satisfaction. Dissatisfaction according to this theory is caused by the inequality of the reward, which should be constantly and continuously evaluated. Therefore discriminatory practices should be avoided at the work place and equality among the employees should be imbibed by the employers at the place of work. Elton Mayo known for his Hawthorne Experiments analyzed the human aspects of motivation and came to a conclusion that motivation was a very complex phenomenon and was not concerned with only about pay, work condition and morale but also about psychological and social factors. Thus he emphasized on the need for recognition and a sense of belongingness as vital factors of motivation. Comparison between Scientific and Behavior approaches The two approaches to the concept of motivation differ from each other as there is an underlying factor which differentiates between them. According to the Scientific Approach, work is inherently unpleasant to most of the people and financial incentives are very lucrative to them than other factors like the nature of work, role profile, work environment etc. hile the Behavioral approach emphasizes on the social aspects like the role of social processes in organization and belongingness and feeling of being important and useful. Thus this approach emphasizes on the human needs more than monetary benefits. So individuals tend to contribute to the success of the organization through their efforts towards the organizational effectiveness. Scientific management is an effective technique for a capitalist system and a money economy where the companys sole objective is the improvement of efficiency and profitability. (Higgins, 2004). Human approach occupies a prominent place in today’s work environment, as company’s success is judged by the qualitative parameters where worker motivation contributes to the success of the company. Conclusions The changing environment is posing a challen ge to the business organizations in the present day situation and the solution to the motivation problems is becoming more and more complex due to the changing factors of motivation (Bowen Radhakrishna, 2001). The management of the business should be able to understand and comprehend the process, theories and fundamental components of motivation. They should not forget that interest work and employee pay are the main components of motivation along with job enlargement, promotions, monetary benefits and non-monetary compensations. Ten motivating factors have been researched (Higgins, 2004) and they are; interesting work, good wages, full appreciation of work done, job security, good working conditions, promotions and growth in the organization, feeling of being in on things, personal loyalty to employees, tactful discipline, and sympathetic help with personal problems. Thus in order to motivate to enhance the efficiency and productivity in a business organization, a motivation program has to be designed on the basis of the knowledge of the factors which are essential for the motivation of the employees. References: Books and Journal Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (ed. ), Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press. Bedeian, A. G. (2003). Management (3rd ed. ). New York: Dryden Press. Bowen, B. E. , Radhakrishna, R. B. (1991). Job satisfaction of agricultural education faculty: A constant phenomena. Journal of Agricultural Education, 32 (2). 16-22. Buford, J. A. , Jr. , Bedeian, A. G. , Lindner, J. R. (2005). Management in Extension (3rd ed. ). Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Extension. Buford, J. A. , Jr. (2000). Extension management in the information age. Journal of Extension, 28 (1). Dickson, W. J. (1973). Hawthorne experiments. In C. Heyel (ed. ), The encyclopedia of management, 2nd ed. (pp. 298-302). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Harpaz, I. (2004). The importance of work goals : an international perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 21. 5-93. Herzberg, F. , Mausner, B. , Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley Sons. Higgins, J. M. (2004). The management challenge (2nd ed. ). New York: Macmillan. Kovach, K. A. (1997). What motivates employees? Workers and supervisors give different answers. Business Horizons, 30. 58-65. Kreitner, R. (2005). Management (6th ed. ). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, July 1943. 370-396. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Free Press. Smith, G. P. 1994). Motivation. In W. Tracey (ed. ), Human resources management and development handbook (2nd ed. ). Terpstra, D. E. (2005). Theories of motivation: borrowing the best. Personnel Journal, 58. 376. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley . Web sites (Web 1) Motivation theorists and their theories (online) (cited 15 Dec ember) Available from https://www. accel-team. com/motivation/theory_01. html (Web 2) Motivation (online) (cited 16 December) Available from URL https://choo. fis. utoronto. ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive1. htm[pic][pic][pic] Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Motivation Theory and Practice Name University" essay for you Create order